The Applied Discovery Black Letter Book

Blackletter

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Some characteristics of the script are:. Schwabacher was a blackletter form that was much used in early German print typefaces. It continued to be used occasionally until the 20th century. Characteristics of Schwabacher are:. Fraktur is a form of blackletter that became the most common German blackletter typeface by the mid 16th century. Its use was so common that often any blackletter form is called Fraktur in Germany.

Characteristics of Fraktur are:. Cursiva refers to a very large variety of forms of blackletter; as with modern cursive writing , there is no real standard form. It developed in the 14th century as a simplified form of textualis , with influence from the form of textualis as used for writing charters.

Cursiva developed partly because of the introduction of paper , which was smoother than parchment. It was therefore, easier to write quickly on paper in a cursive script. In cursiva , descenders are more frequent, especially in the letters f and s, and ascenders are curved and looped rather than vertical seen especially in the letter d.

The letters a, g, and s at the end of a word are very similar to their Carolingian forms. However, not all of these features are found in every example of cursiva , which makes it difficult to determine whether or not a script may be called cursiva at all. Lieftinck also divided cursiva into three styles: Littera cursiva textualis or libraria was the usual form, used for writing standard books, and it generally was written with a larger pen, leading to larger letters. Littera cursiva currens was used for textbooks and other unimportant books and it had very little standardization in forms.

Hybrida is also called bastarda especially in France , and as its name suggests, is a hybrid form of the script. It is a mixture of textualis and cursiva , developed in the early 15th century. The Donatus-Kalender also known as Donatus-und-Kalender or D-K is the name for the metal type design that Gutenberg used in his earliest surviving printed works, dating from the early s.

The name is taken from two works: While an antiqua typeface is usually compound of roman types and italic types since the 16th-century French typographers, the blackletter typefaces never developed a similar distinction. Instead, they use letterspacing German Sperrung for emphasis.

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The use of bold text for emphasis is also alien to blackletter typefaces. Words from other languages, especially from Romance languages including Latin, are usually typeset in antiqua instead of blackletter. This does not apply, however, to loanwords that have been incorporated into the language. English blackletter developed from the form of Caroline minuscule used there after the Norman Conquest , sometimes called "Romanesque minuscule". Textualis forms developed after and were used most often until approximately , afterward being used mainly for de luxe manuscripts.

English forms of blackletter have been studied extensively and may be divided into many categories.

Textualis formata "Old English" or "blackLetter" , textualis prescissa or textualis sine pedibus , as it generally lacks feet on its minims , textualis quadrata or psalterialis and semi-quadrata , and textualis rotunda are various forms of high-grade formata styles of blackletter. The University of Oxford borrowed the littera parisiensis in the 13th century and early 14th century, and the littera oxoniensis form is almost indistinguishable from its Parisian counterpart; however, there are a few differences, such as the round final "s" forms, resembling the number 8, rather than the long "s" used in the final position in the Paris script.

Chaucer 's works were originally printed in blackletter, but most presses were switched over to Roman type around , following the trend of the Renaissance. English cursiva began to be used in the 13th century, and soon replaced littera oxoniensis as the standard university script. The earliest cursive blackletter form is Anglicana , a very round and looped script, which also had a squarer and angular counterpart, Anglicana formata. The formata form was used until the 15th century and also was used to write vernacular texts.

An Anglicana bastarda form developed from a mixture of Anglicana and textualis , but by the 16th century the principal cursive blackletter used in England was the Secretary script, which originated in Italy and came to England by way of France. Secretary script has a somewhat haphazard appearance, and its forms of the letters a, g, r, and s are unique, unlike any forms in any other English script. French textualis was tall and narrow compared to other national forms, and was most fully developed in the late 13th century in Paris.

In the 13th century there also was an extremely small version of textualis used to write miniature Bibles, known as "pearl script". Another form of French textualis in this century was the script developed at the University of Paris , littera parisiensis , which also is small in size and designed to be written quickly, not calligraphically. French cursiva was used from the 13th to the 16th century, when it became highly looped, messy, and slanted.

Bastarda , the "hybrid" mixture of cursiva and textualis , developed in the 15th century and was used for vernacular texts as well as Latin. Despite the frequent association of blackletter with German , the script was actually very slow to develop in German-speaking areas. It developed first in those areas closest to France and then spread to the east and south in the 13th century. The German-speaking areas are, however, where blackletter remained in use the longest. Schwabacher typefaces dominated in Germany from about to , and the style continued in use occasionally until the 20th century.

The origins of the name remain unclear; some assume that a typeface-carver from the village of Schwabach—one who worked externally and who thus became known as the Schwabacher —designed the typeface. These illustrate the power and flexibility of ultracold-lattice analogues for exploring exotic states of matter at an unprecedented level of precision.

CERN is the world's largest particle physics research laboratory. Since it was established in , it has made an outstanding contribution to our understanding of the fundamental particles and their interactions, and also to the technologies needed to analyse their properties and behaviour. The experimental challenges have pushed the performance of particle accelerators and detectors to the limits of our technical capabilities, and these groundbreaking technologies can also have a significant impact in applications beyond particle physics.

In particular, the detectors developed for particle physics have led to improved techniques for medical imaging, while accelerator technologies lie at the heart of the irradiation methods that are widely used for treating cancer. Indeed, many important diagnostic and therapeutic techniques used by healthcare professionals are based either on basic physics principles or the technologies developed to carry out physics research.

Ever since the discovery of x-rays by Roentgen in , physics has been instrumental in the development of technologies in the biomedical domain, including the use of ionizing radiation for medical imaging and therapy. Some key examples that are explored in detail in this book include scanners based on positron emission tomography, as well as radiation therapy for cancer treatment.

Even the collaborative model of particle physics is proving to be effective in catalysing multidisciplinary research for medical applications, ensuring that pioneering physics research is exploited for the benefit of all.

Numerology

Imre Bartos and Marek Kowalski. With the recent discovery of gravitational waves and high-energy cosmic neutrinos, we are witnessing the beginning of a new era in multimessenger astronomy.

The exploration of the Universe through these new messengers, along with electromagnetic radiation and cosmic rays, gives us new insights into the most extreme energetic cosmic events, environments and particle accelerators. The objects of interest range from galaxies with accreting supermassive black holes in their centre to collapsing stars and coalescing stellar black holes.

In this ebook we provide an introduction to the scientific questions surrounding these new messengers and the detectors and observational techniques used to study them, together with an overview of current and future directions in the field. Together, these two dark entities play out a cosmic battle of epic proportions, with the gravity of dark matter slowly pulling structures in the Universe together, and dark energy fuelling the Universe's accelerated expansion, making it ever harder for those structures to grow.

In this book we will explore this dark enigma and introduce the cosmologist's toolkit of observations and techniques that allow us to confront different theories on the dark Universe. I'll explain why I believe that, to truly understand the dark Universe, we will need some new physics that will forever change our cosmic view. Space weather—changes in the Earth's environment that can often be traced to physical processes in the Sun—can have a profound impact on critical Earth-based infrastructures such as power grids and civil aviation.

Violent eruptions on the solar surface can eject huge clouds of magnetized plasma and particle radiation, which then propagate across interplanetary space and envelop the Earth. These space weather events can drive major changes in a variety of terrestrial environments, which can disrupt, or even damage, many of the technological systems that underpin modern societies.

The aim of this book is to offer an insight into our current scientific understanding of space weather, and how we can use that knowledge to mitigate the risks it poses for Earth-based technologies. It also identifies some key challenges for future space-weather research, and considers how emerging technological developments may introduce new risks that will drive continuing investigation.

Quantitative finance is a field that has risen to prominence over the last few decades. It encompasses the complex models and calculations that value financial contracts, particularly those which reference events in the future, and apply probabilities to these events. While adding greatly to the flexibility of the market available to corporations and investors, it has also been blamed for worsening the impact of financial crises. But what exactly does quantitative finance encompass, and where did these ideas and models originate? We show that the mathematics behind finance and behind games of chance have tracked each other closely over the centuries and that many well-known physicists and mathematicians have contributed to the field.

Cancer therapy is a multi-modality approach including surgery, systemic or targeted chemotherapy, radiation external beam or radionuclide , and immunotherapy. Radiation is typically administered using external beam photon therapy. Proton therapy has been around for more than 60 years but was restricted to research laboratories until the s. Since then clinical proton therapy has been growing rapidly with currently more than 50 facilities worldwide.

The interest in proton therapy stems from the physical properties of protons allowing for advanced dose sculpting around the target and sparing of healthy tissue. This review first evaluates the basics of proton therapy physics and technology and then outlines some of the current physical, biological, and clinical challenges.

Solving these will ultimately determine whether proton therapy will continue on its path to becoming mainstream.

The emerging field of complex light—the study and application of custom light beams with tailored intensity, polarization or phase—is a focal point for fundamental breakthroughs in optical science. As this review will show, those advances in fundamental understanding, coupled with the latest developments in complex light generation, are translating into a range of diverse and cross-disciplinary applications that span microscopy, high-data-rate communications, optical trapping and quantum optics. We can expect more twists along the way, too, as researchers seek to manipulate and control the propagation speed of complex light beams, while others push the more exotic possibilities afforded by complex light in quantum-entanglement experiments.

Launched in as a trial from IOP Publishing, the Physics World Discovery collection includes many popular subjects including everything from dark universe to quantitative finance and from antimatter to proton-beam therapy. Each text from the collection is the perfect springboard for getting you up to speed with the latest developments in physics.

Managing Editor, Physics World matin. Associate Director, Publishing joe. Reviews and Careers Editor, Physics World tushna. This site uses cookies. By continuing to use this site you agree to our use of cookies. To find out more, see our Privacy and Cookies policy.

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Physics World Discovery These accessible texts provide insight into the latest hot topics in physics from leading voices and rising stars in physics. Physics World Discovery collection is an ideal starting point for anyone seeking to understand these evolving fields. Stephan Schlamminger Published September View description. Tetraquarks and Pentaquarks Authors: Gavin Hesketh Published July View description.

Carbon Capture and Storage Author: Owain Tucker Published July View description. Nuclear Waste Management Authors: Jessamyn Fairfield Published March View description. The single digit then arrived at is assigned a particular significance according to the method used. The examples above are calculated using decimal base 10 arithmetic. Other number systems exist, such as binary, octal, hexadecimal and vigesimal ; summing digits in these bases yields different results. The first example, shown above, appears thus when rendered in octal base The Arabic system of numerology is known as Abjad notation or Abjad numerals.

In this system each letter of Arabic alphabet has a numerical value. This system is the foundation of ilm-ul-cipher , the Science of Cipher, and ilm-ul-huroof , the Science of Alphabet:. Some Chinese assign a different set of meanings to the numbers and certain number combinations are considered luckier than others. In general, even numbers are considered lucky, since it is believed that good luck comes in pairs.

Cantonese frequently associate numbers with the following connotations based on its sound , which may differ in other varieties of Chinese:. The list is shown below:. There is no assignment for the number 9.

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Numerologists analyze double-digit numbers from 10 to Fifth generation 5G , a. New Radio NR , uses the term "numerology" to describe the combination of subcarrier spacing and symbol length. For example, in NR 5G several different numerology i.

Physics World Discovery

Scientific theories are sometimes labeled "numerology" if their primary inspiration appears to be a set of patterns rather than scientific observations. This colloquial use of the term is quite common within the scientific community and it is mostly used to dismiss a theory as questionable science. The best known example of "numerology" in science involves the coincidental resemblance of certain large numbers that intrigued such eminent men as mathematical physicist Paul Dirac , mathematician Hermann Weyl and astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington.

These numerical coincidences refer to such quantities as the ratio of the age of the universe to the atomic unit of time, the number of electrons in the universe, and the difference in strengths between gravity and the electric force for the electron and proton. The discovery of atomic triads , an early attempt to sort the elements into some logical order by their physical properties, was once considered a form of numerology, and yet ultimately led to the construction of the periodic table.

Here the atomic weight of the lightest element and the heaviest are summed, and averaged, and the average is found to be very close to that of the intermediate weight element. This didn't work with every triplet in the same group, but worked often enough to allow later workers to create generalizations.

Large number co-incidences continue to fascinate many mathematical physicists. For instance, James G. Gilson has constructed a "Quantum Theory of Gravity" based loosely on Dirac's large number hypothesis. Wolfgang Pauli was also fascinated by the appearance of certain numbers, including , in physics.

There have been a few examples of numerology that have led to theories that transformed society: It would be fair enough to say that numerology was the origin of the theories of electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, gravitation So I intend no disparagement when I describe a formula as numerological.

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