Understanding Sustainable Architecture

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Through a series of self-reflective questions for designers, the authors argue the ultimate importance of reasoned argument in ecological, social and built contexts, including clarity in the problem framing and linking this framing to demonstrably effective actions.

Sustainable architecture, then, is seen as a revised conceptualisation of architecture in response to a myriad of contemporary concerns about the effects of human activity. The aim of this book is to be transformative by promoting understanding and discussion of commonly ignored assumptions behind the search for a more environmentally sustainable approach to development. It is argued that design decisions must be based on both an ethical position and a coherent understanding of the objectives and systems involved.

The actions of individual designers and appropriate broader policy settings both follow from this understanding. Global warming and building design. The Nature of Urban Design. Designing To Avoid Disaster. How to write a great review. The review must be at least 50 characters long. The title should be at least 4 characters long. Your display name should be at least 2 characters long. At Kobo, we try to ensure that published reviews do not contain rude or profane language, spoilers, or any of our reviewer's personal information. You submitted the following rating and review.

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Close Report a review At Kobo, we try to ensure that published reviews do not contain rude or profane language, spoilers, or any of our reviewer's personal information. Would you like us to take another look at this review? No, cancel Yes, report it Thanks! You've successfully reported this review. We appreciate your feedback. Indeed, natural systems ecology very often serves as a model that provides a scientific justification for sustainability.

The absence of sustainability in natural systems is generally marked by two observations; resource demands in excess of absolute limits or variations imposed on the system whose rate of change is beyond the possibilities of adjustment. While perhaps providing a valuable insight into possible dangers it does carry a logical ambiguity. As Redclift points out, this discourse framed as an ecological view fails to connect into the image the issues of human choices and of human interventions. While modernity continues as the dominant framework of architectural prac- tice, as manifest in its political context, legislation, regulations, design advice, and other practices , 'postmodern' theorists and critics point to the enormity of the predicaments we face and repudiate the modern ways of going about solving the problems.

One of the practical dimensions of the crisis derives from the sheer magni- tude of our powers. What we and other people do may have profound, Sustainability 9 far-reaching and long-term consequences, which we can neither see directly nor predict with precision. Between the deeds and their outcomes there is a huge distance - both in time and in space - which we cannot fathom using our innate, ordinary powers of perception - and so we can hardly measure the quality of our actions by a full inventory of their effects.

What we and others do has 'side-effects', 'unanticipated consequences', which may smother whatever good purposes are intentioned and bring about disasters and suf- fering neither we nor anybody else wished or contemplated. It has, though, also brought with it the invention of hideous weapons of destruction and the extravagant use of limited resources. Consider- ing the world as something to be exploited and manipulated for human purposes has resulted in the destruction and pollution of much of the natural environment and the extinction of whole species.

Michael Redclift illustrates the way that sustainability relates to both modernist and postmodern views: The idea of sustainability is derived from science, but at the same time highlights the limitations of science. It is used to carry moral, human, imperatives, but at the same time acquires legitimacy from identifying biospheric 'imperatives' beyond human sciences. Married to the idea of development, sustainability represents the high-water mark of Modernist tradition.

At the same time, emphasis on cultural diversity, which some writers view as the underpinning of sustainability, is a clear expression of Postmodernism. The earliest of these photographs, taken during the Apollo 8 mission of , records the first time that humans had travelled far enough from Earth to obtain an image that showed the whole planet.

Hajer sees this image as marking a 'fundamental shift in thinking about the relationship between man and nature' Hajer The 'prophets of doom' simplify the complex and uncertain research into the actual relationships between climate and human impact into the presentation of alarming scenarios as scientifically-authenticated certainties. This is dangerous because it leads to a misallocation of effort and resources and masks valid concerns. The 'snake oil peddlers' present products of all kinds, including buildings, as offering qualities of sustainability and environmental friendliness, 'Greenness, suddenly, is market- able' Fisher For every fallen tree a new one is planted so no tropical rainforest need be destroyed' Tickell , The organization Friends of the Earth revealed that the logging of this timber was often highly destructive, often illegal and often took place in national parks and reserves intended to protect endangered wildlife.

In France, a large supermarket chain sold a similar range, but in this case the origin was not identified. On each table and chair was simply a tag bearing a vague Asian graphic and a statement that Le maranti dint sont fabrique vos meuble de jardin provient de forets gerees dans le but de mantenir un parfait equilibre ecologique. The merranti that is used to make this garden furniture comes from forests managed with the aim of maintaining a perfect ecological equilibrium, If, as advertising people say, marketing is mainly about selling concepts and lifestyles that just happen to have products attached, then the fact that such statements exist is a testament to the degree the sustainability issue has pen- etrated the public consciousness in these countries.

Sometimes these statements are misrepresentations made in ignorance rather than with the intention to mislead or deceive. Often, however, a fraudulent intention seems clear - there are lies, damned lies and claims for sustainability. Sustainability 1 1 Without some form of authoritative certification such statements are worth- less- For timber, such an authoritative certification system does exist- The Forest Stewardship Council FSC was established in as a worldwide standard- setter for socially and environmentally beneficial forestry, FSC accredits inde- pendent certifiers to audit forestry practices against its standards.

Products made of timber from certified forests may carry the FSC logo. It is the only eco-label for timber approved by the major environmental groups. But even this guide can have pitfalls, as an Australian architect discovered. She specified 'that only certified plantation grown, Australian eucalypt timber' should be used for par- quetry flooring of a dwelling.

The 'specified' timber arrived on site in packages labelled Fabricado em Portugal It was unclear whether the timber had been grown in Portugal or logs had been transported there for manufacture into the flooring product. There is much 'doom and greenwash' in the discourse of architecture. The doom is apparent in some of the rhetoric of government and other agencies, used as a means to attract attention following the principle that the ends justify the means.

The greenwash is manifest in some of the claims made for the plethora of building materials, features and gadgets that by their presence alone are held to authenticate a green building. Sometimes these are rustic materials mud brick, straw bales, rammed earth. Sometimes they are high-tech gadgets solar panels, sun scoops and geothermal heating systems.

The important point is that while biodegradable materials and technical devices can make effective contributions, and symbolic elements can be important in their own right we discuss this later , the use of such materials and devices is not alone a sufficient indicator of an environmentally friendly building. There must be demonstrable benefits in the particular case.

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Many ecogadgets do not really justify in use the environmental and financial cost of their production, and many buildings do not operate or are operated by their occupants as imagined. Drawing arrows on building cross sections, for example, does not mean that airflow will cooperat- ively follow the indicated path. This point was nicely made in a paper entitled 'Air is stupid It can't follow the arrows ' Were , 16 Showing a photograph of an ancient middle-eastern windcatcher on a new design proposal for another place does not mean that the careful and effective cooling effect achieved after hundreds of years of development for the original local climate will be trans- ferred to the new building.

So far there has been remarkably little systematic post-construction measurement and evaluation of buildings for which claims of 'sustainable architecture' are made. We can parallel the notion of 'ecogadgets' by coining the term 'cultureclamps', those devices which relate to sustainability in cultural rather than physical envir- onment terms. This refers to the assumption that a global building designed elsewhere can be clamped limpet-like to a local culture by using the 'right' materials, features and gadgets appropriated from the vernacular.

Examples are corrugated iron denoting Australianness, grass roofs in South Pacific resort hotels, and half-timbered walls in English country villages. There is nothing intrinsically wrong or right about such styles and features, and their use may 12 Sustainability well be a careful contextual approach rather than a part of what we might call 'culture wash'. In the final chapter of this book we shall look to reasoned argu- ment to distinguish between expressions of environmental and cultural sensitiv- ity on the one hand, and of greenwash and culturewash on the other hand.

Towards a basis for action Given this situation, how should architects and other designers respond? We have to act; to make decisions in our day-to-day practices as designers. There are checklists of recommended design actions in many books and web sites, and we add yet another in the Appendix of this book, which we shall introduce in Chapter 4- For each checklist the emphasis that is given to a recommendation depends partly on the moral position implicitly taken by the author.

Some green architects such as William McDonough have set down principles upon which they believe sustainable design should be based. The following nine points, known as the Hannover Principles, were developed when McDonough was commissioned by the city of Hannover, Germany, to develop guidelines of design for sustainability for the Expo World's Fair. The elements of human design interact with and depend upon the natural world, with broad and diverse implic- ations at every scale.

Expand design considerations to recognizing even distant effects, 3 Respect relationships between spirit and matter. Consider all aspects of human settlement including community, dwelling, industry, and trade in terms of existing and evolving connections between spiritual and material consciousness, 4 Accept responsibility for consequences of design decisions upon human well-being, the viability of natural systems, and their rights to coexist, 5 Create safe objects of long-term value.

Do not burden future genera- tions with requirements for maintenance or vigilant administration of potential danger due to careless creation of products, processes, or standards, 6 Eliminate the concept of waste. Evaluate and optimize the full life cycle of products and processes, to approach the state of natural sys- tems, in which there is no waste, 7 Rely on natural energy flows.

Human designs should, like the living world, derive their creative forces from perpetual solar income. Incor- porate this energy efficiently and safely for responsible use, 8 Understand the limitation of design. No human creation lasts forever and design does not solve all problems. Those who create and plan should practice humility in the face of nature. Treat nature as a model and a mentor, not an inconvenience to be evaded or controlled.

Sustainability 13 9 Seek constant improvement by the sharing of knowledge. Encourage direct and open communication between colleagues, patrons, manufac- turers, and users to link long term sustainable considerations with eth- ical responsibility, and re-establish the integral relationship between natural processes and human activity. McDonough, William and Partners They do not necessarily help people design though that is usually their intent , and may actually mislead because they cannot cope with the complexities and uniqueness of a particular design situation.

In this sense they can be 'unecological', given that the concept of ecology has taught us to take account of complexity, interconnected- ness and uniqueness. This, then, is the context in which we write this book. Our topic is the way in which sustainable architecture is and should be conceptualized, and the beliefs, goals, processes and advice that underlie its promotion.

Our aim is to inform this conceptualization by promoting discussion and understanding of commonly ignored assumptions behind the search for a more sustainable archi- tecture, arguing that design decisions must be based on a coherent understand- ing of ethical stances and the objectives and systems involved- Individual actions and appropriate broader policies both follow from this understanding. Rather than providing 'how to' advice or critically reviewing existing projects that claim to be examples of sustainable architecture, we shall place in the forefront the milieu in which other books that do address these topics are positioned and read.

We address our book primarily to other architects and future architects, 18 In approaching our aim some of the questions that arise are: In dealing with these questions we argue that the notion of 'sustainable archi- tecture' as a product, as attributes of buildings, is not only problematic but often counterproductive as it can lead to simplification and the undervaluing of local 14 Sustainability cultural and physical contexts. Instead, we advocate a way of thinking based on performing beautiful acts that arise out of credible reasoned argument, with a recognition of the way our values and our knowledge inform this process.

In the following chapters we shall examine some of the key approaches that are promoted in the discourse of sustainability in architecture and building. We shall compare competing images of architectural sustainability that are apparent in the contemporary discourse of architecture. We shall consider ethical frame- works for practice. We shall locate regulations and design guides as means-based or performance -based statements about 'what should happen' in design. We shall explore the possibilities of systems theory with its assumption of the pos- sibility of quantification and auditing of the life cycle impacts of the production, life, demolition and recycling of buildings.

We shall examine the way that pro- posed responses to environmental impacts of buildings are connected with larger political and economic concerns. Finally we shall summarize individual and policy directions that might follow from the arguments set out in this exposition. Notes 1 Foucault sees such strategies as 'systematically different ways of treating objects of discourse An analysis of competing conceptions of ecological place- making in the products and literature of architecture is made by Simon Guy and Graham Farmer and We shall explore this theme in Chapter 2.

At any given time in the life of a profession, certain ways of framing problems and roles come into good currency. Their frames determine their strategies of atten- tion and thereby set the directions in which they will try to change the situation, the values which will shape their practice.

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When a practitioner becomes aware of his frames, he also becomes aware of the possibility of alternative ways of framing the realities of his practice. He takes note of the values and norms to which he has given priority, and those he has given less importance, or left out of account altogether. Frame awareness tends to entrain awareness of dilemmas. Population projections are inherently unreliable. A study by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis in Laxenberg, Austria reported in Nature, Sustainability 15 August , suggested a peak of nine billion by with a population in decline by the end of this century.

The report of the Club of Rome Limits to Growth Meadows focused awareness on the relationships between population, eco- nomic growth and environmental degradation. If we regard a decline in human population as desirable by no means a universally accepted position , then we might use our professional skills to help raise living standards in the Third World with an expectation that lower birth rates will follow.

This may be a desirable end, but Peter Fawcett responds: It is often argued that, because population growth is greatest in the under- developed countries, and because birth rates are lowered by affluence, world population increase can be limited by economic growth in poorer countries towards Western standards. There are two fallacies in this argument. Firstly, population continues to grow in even the richest countries; and secondly, the trade-off of consumption increase against reduction in population increase will take the ecosystem beyond limits.

It is crucial to understand that it is materially impossible for us to destroy the planet Earth, that the worst we can do is to engage in material transformations of our environment so as to make life less rather than more comfortable for our own species, while recognizing that what we do also does have ramifications both positive and negative for other living species. The strategy has been endorsed in national and local government, for example, the Environmental Management policy of Central Sydney Development Control Plan 16 Sustainability CSDCP requires that 'principles of ecologically sustainable development ESD are integrated into the design and construction of development'.

Similar positions have been taken in other countries. Smith, Whitelegg and Williams The latter question recognizes sustainability as the overarching concern, in terms of which all social disciplines and conduct must be reinterpreted and reformulated. The environment does not exist as a sphere separate from human actions, ambitions, and needs, and attempts to defend it in isolation from human con- cerns have given the very word 'environment' a connotation of naivety in some political circles.

The word 'development' has also been narrowed by some into a very limited focus, along the lines of 'what poor nations should do to become richer', and thus again is automatically dismissed by many in the inter- national arena as being a concern of specialists, of those involved in questions of 'development assistance'. But the 'environment' is where we all live; and 'development' is what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within that abode. The two are inseparable.

Further, development issues must be seen as crucial by the political leaders who feel that their countries have reached a plateau towards which other nations must strive. Many of the development paths of the industrialized nations are clearly unsustainable. And the development decisions of these countries, because of their great economic and political power, will have a profound effect upon the ability of all peoples to sustain human progress for generations to come. Many critical survival issues are related to uneven development, poverty, and population growth.

They all place unprecedented pressures on the planet's lands, waters, forests, and other natural resources, not least in the developing countries. The downward spiral of poverty and envir- onmental degradation is a waste of opportunities and of resources. In particular, it is a waste of human resources. These links between poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation formed a major theme in our analysis and recom- mendations.

What is needed now is a new era of economic growth - growth that is forceful and at the same time socially and environmentally sustainable.

It was also the first international policy advice document that acknowledged and focused on the interrelations between the economy and environmental well-being. Sustainability 17 10 Some in fact have suggested that issues that are presented as serious threats to sustainability, such as resource depletion and global warming, are entirely political phenomena, examples of what the American journalist and satirist Henry Louis Mencken described thus: It carries implications that the Earth is something that can be conceived of as a whole and known objectively.

Even if it had, it would not be able to follow understand the arrows and, even if it could, it would not be able to follow the arrows path because air is stupid. Were 17 In Chapter 4 we shall locate these in a 'decision theory' model of the relations between decisions, means, objectives and other components of a purposeful design process.

We are down here in the world, carrying our own cultural baggage and taking part in the discourse and practice of architecture. As authors, our own collective background is western- educated Australia and England in architecture, engineering and planning, with a research and practice record that has been dominated by modernism. Fields of significance We noted in Chapter 1 that in modern Western societies discussions of sustainability are almost invariably associated with a particular way of looking at the 'environment' that is scientific in nature and global in scope- Environ- mental problems such as climate change, acid rain and the depletion of the ozone layer are essentially 'modern' in that they are global concerns, identified using scientific methods, and involve international cooperation and national institutions in their solution.

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The very expression 'the global environment' 20 Images makes this scope explicit, but even when we leave out the term 'global' the way that environmental issues are discussed often implies that there is just one big environment that we can somehow stand outside and comprehend Cooper But we can also think of environmental issues in terms of 'the environment' as it affects us in our day-to-day lives, as in 'the home environ- ment' or 'the work environment'- This is not just a narrower or more selected version of the global view.

It is a quite different perspective based on knowing from within that environment, and can never be fully appreciated from the 'outside'- It has connections to ancient views about the relationship of the individual to the world that were conceptualized as a person at the centre of a series of spheres see Figure 2,1 , The individual's view of the world grew from his or her local knowledge and personal and immediate experience and was drawn ever deeper into the world.

The medieval Judeo-Christian view of the universe placed the static, spher- ical earth at its centre with the stars attached to a surrounding, rotating sphere that marked the edge of the universe- The cosmology was rich in sign and symbol, with one of the central motifs being that nature was a book through which God's word could be read- David Cooper suggests that these notions of the environment were 'local' not so much in terms of geographical proximity or causal impact, but rather because one's environment was where one was 'at home', knew one's way around, and knew what things meant and stood for.

People generally had a sense of belonging and identity that was intimately related to places and things Cooper , 1 Cooper talks of the environment as a 'field of significance' in which features and patterns of behaviour have acquired significance because of their importance in everyday practices. For example, a tree may have significance because it marks the halfway point of the walk home, because one's grandfather planted it or because it produces a wonderful crop of early apricots- These environments are known experientially through the senses as well as understood intellectually.

Being at the centre of things, it is difficult for an individual to define the extent of his or her environ- ment, but its sustainability for the individual entails the continuation of the myriad significances for that individual Cooper refers to Heidegger's description of the 'referential totality' of a farm where items such as a cow's udder and a milk pail 'take on significance only as parts of a whole' Cooper According to Heidegger the sense of 'dwelling', of deep connection to land and place, is central to living and well-being.

He asks us to Think for a while of a farmhouse in the Black Forest, which was built some two hundred years ago by the dwelling of peasants. Here the self-sufficiency of the power to let earth and heaven, divinities and mortals enter in simple oneness into things, ordered the house. Over time, the technical and tectonic poten- tial of modes of construction were developed to enrich the symbolic qualities of buildings, particularly those with religious or other particular cultural signific- ance such a Norwegian stave church, a Greek temple or a Sarawak long-house- in these terms, sustainability implies the potential to continue dwelling indefin- itely, maintaining this connection to land and place.

The land is instrumentally valuable in making cultivation possible, but equally important is its emotional role in a meaningful life. Further, family and society become intertwined with land and place, so that people belong in specific places in specific kinds of environments. To some peoples including Australian Aborigines and Canadian Inui , elements of the landscape themselves have great spiritual significance.

People 'belong' to a particular land area even if living elsewhere, and that area contains 'sacred sites' that only initiated members of the community know about and which must not be disturbed. Sustainability is then the protection and maintenance of existing land with all of its meanings. Our neighbours share our own cultural horizons, change is slow, and building form, culture and environmental change move in step.

They have a similar field of significance and similar images of the world to our own. By 'images' in this book we mean both the visual image the most common meaning of the word and what occurs 'behind the eye', the way we represent ideas to ourselves and to others and the impressions we have of other people, products and things. As Kenneth Boulding described the concept in the early s, images in this sense are about memory and imagination, connec- tions to the past and to the future. Images are built up from a wide range of sources including personal experience, education, the media and our relationships with others.

This is most familiar to architects through the writing of Kevin Lynch about the images that people have of cities and how these help in way-finding and 'reading' a city. He talks of the environmental image as: The generalized mental picture of the exterior physical world that is held by an individual. The image is both the product of immediate sensation and of the memory of past experience, and it is used to interpret informa- tion and to guide action.

They are also suffused with meaning, feeling, and value, and these meanings are more complex and subtle than are the dry bones of structure' Lynch An appreciation of the importance of one's own environments may provide the basis for confronting modern environmental problems. And these concerns will be directed at whatever threatens to separate them from their environment, to make their milieu alien. They will be directed, say, at the proposed erection of a factory farm, the squawking and stench from which expel the familiar sounds and smells of their surroundings; or at the planned construction of a motorway which will render impossible the old intimacy between neigh- bours on opposite sides of the valley, Cooper But these concerns will not remain purely 'local'.

While my environmental concerns begin with my environment, I recognize that other people and animals, too have, or should have, their environments. If I appreciate the importance for my life of a place I know my way about I must appreciate the importance this has for others as well, and I will want to defend their efforts to preserve such places, Cooper We have transnational corporations that cross boundaries and whose immense resources are necessary to respond to major resource projects. We have political and economic migra- tion where people cross political boundaries in order to seek a better life for themselves and their children.

We have global issues such as terrorism and climate change that cannot be addressed within individual nations. We have international news media, increasingly integrated multinational political and economic groupings and agencies such as the European Economic Community, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, We have international law and multinational agreements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Images 23 Few people experience a single, geographic, place-based field of significance in our current century.

There are cultural groups of international financiers and politicians as well as local fishermen.

Further, cultures have 'ill-defined edges', so that people do not always clearly belong, or not belong, to a particular culture. Individuals are typically members of several overlaid cultural groups, with professional, religious, racial, national and other affiliations. The con- temporary citizen is culturally hyphenated: This view acknowledges that there are many environments that are defined in relation to their significance to 'that which is environed': For many people, their images associated with the term 'environ- ment' encompass both global and individual views.

They shift focus easily between the global view and the individual field of significance views depend- ing on the context in which environmental considerations arise. We have, then, a world in which there is a tension between the international 'world citizen' horizon and the traditional 'race and place' horizon, and tensions between such concepts as universal human rights and local religious and cul- tural rights, Francis Fukuyama, who famously suggested that we had reached the end of history because the universal appeal of liberal democracy and free markets marked the end of the progress of humans towards modernity Fukuyama , argues that this process indeed threatens the traditional existence of some societies.

For the modernist world citizen, place is just another com- modity. Whether to live on a Greek island, in a Scandinavian forest, or in an American city is a choice made on the way that these places enable different lifestyles including economic opportunities and climate , not on a sense of belonging and identity in the Heideggarian sense. Local culture - and local modes of building and architectural style - are facets of the commodity of place.

Like the land itself, they may be embraced and valued, but they never carry the same deep meaning for the global itinerant dweller as they do for the native, Spector makes this point in The Ethical Architect: Modernists unapologetically maintain that globalization, scientific ration- ality, and technology are the most important elements of any context in this day and age; climate, history, and topography must be dealt with, of course, but they are easily dispatched.

This attitude, simply put, is what it means to be modern, Spector It is seen predominantly in terms of global issues: When the regional and particular culture, economy, climate or ecosystem is addressed, this is done as instances of multiple particulars and with a constant awareness of the 'others'. It cannot be otherwise. Indeed, this book is a typical enterprise of the modernist world citizen; it tries to address global issues from our own cultural positions, with a desire to be instru- mental at least in a small way on a global scale, and does so through the global publishing industry.

The international culture of architecture Both the discourse and practice of architecture are increasingly dominated by global itinerants. Students of architecture are educated in architecture schools where staff may come from many countries, are taught with reference to globally- published reference books, are referred to the same iconic and emblematic buildings, and take part in international student competitions. When seeking information and knowledge they are likely to try an internet search engine before the shelves of their own library; indeed, if looking for a book they may well try Amazonxom before the library catalogue.

The products of architecture are made known through international journals. The international strength of the disciplinary culture of architecture, with a small number of 'superstar' architects working concurrently in different parts of the world, dominates local contexts. The international offices share expertise across national boundaries, and their buildings are subject to internationally- agreed codes and standards. The growth of the multinational architectural firm leads to a divorce between the places where architectural design takes place in 'design-oriented' ateliers , where documentation is carried out, where skilled people command lower salar- ies, and where the building is to be constructed.

The 'meanings' associated with the building are those of global organizations and world citizens. Where the importance of local 'meaning' is recognized, it tends to be treated as something that can be 'given' to a building by designers for whom it is not meaningful, as just another 'function' of architecture, 6 Modernism has accepted and celebrated internationalism with its manifest benefits, but at the same time as the practice and production of architecture is becoming more global and undifferentiated, the theory and discourse of the discipline is paying increasing attention to regional and national differences.

Yet this recognition is not equivalent to operating from inside a culture.

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