Closing the Education Gap: Benefits and Costs

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Bringing Achievement Gaps into Focus Chapter 2: Environmental Causes of Achievement Gaps: An Introduction Chapter 4: Socioeconomic Status Chapter 5: Family Environment Chapter 6: Environmental Causes of the Achievement Gap: Community, Racism, and Individual Differences Chapter 7: Out-of-School Learning Experiences Chapter 8: Schooling Causes of the Achievement Gap: The Instructional Program Chapter 9: To send this article to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply cambridge.

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Find out more about sending content to Google Drive. This article first catalogs the curious lack of benefit-cost analysis BCA in policing, given the increasing use of BCA in other areas of criminal justice. Policing has historically been viewed through a benefit-only lens, focusing almost exclusively on the welfare gains associated with the incapacitation of dangerous offenders and the deterrence of future criminal activity. The benefit-only perspective fails to take into account the significant costs of enforcement.

Closing the Education Gap: Benefits and Costs

Most saliently, the benefit-only perspective limits the discussion of the costs to policing. We argue that BCA of policing should not be limited to the financial perspective of any municipality, but must include the full nonbudgetary social costs and benefits felt by all those who feel the impact of policing. Social costs should include all direct and indirect costs borne by members of society who are impacted by policing practices in addition to costs that appear in police department budgets.

During the past decade, benefit-cost analysis BCA has increasingly been used to evaluate criminal justice policies and programs. Foundations and governments have also shown increased interest in criminal justice BCA. National Institute of Justice, , The use of BCA to evaluate policing practices, however, has been scant, despite a decade-long effort to proliferate the use of criminal justice BCA.

Only four of the 49 adult criminal justice investments examined by the WSIPP are for policing programs and policies, and none of the 30 juvenile justice investments they examined pertain to policing. The paucity of BCA in policing is conspicuous considering the amount spent on policing in the United States. Bureau of Justice Statistics, Furthermore, the relative merits and drawbacks of emerging policing technologies — such as body-worn and dashboard cameras, predictive policing software, computer-aided dispatch systems — and practices — such as proactive patrolling, and stop and frisk — are debated without any concrete data on the benefits and costs.

When BCA of policing is formally conducted, frequently, the costs considered are limited strictly to the budgetary costs of implementation. Both of these reviews, however, highlight a narrow focus on costs, limiting them principally to operational expenses. This narrow focus is expanding in more recent cost-of-crime literature, with Donohue , for example, discussing but not estimating a broader set of social costs and benefits. This view must expand further, and especially into the cost side of the analysis.

The lack of BCA in policing is not only strange; it is disconcerting.

While these benefits and costs are fundamental components to consider when determining the optimal level of any police practice, this perspective fails to take into account many significant costs of enforcement. First-order costs of policing refer to the costs incurred by the government should an individual be stopped, arrested, tried, and convicted for a crime; pretrial proceedings and prison expenses are included. First-order costs also include the costs incurred by innocent individuals who are stopped in traffic or on the street Cohen , this issue.

Second-order costs, although more difficult to quantify, are equally important considerations. These types of costs include family instability, diminished job prospects, dignitary harms from wrongful incarceration, loss of income, and a host of other considerations that result from enforcement.

Closing the Gap: The Need for Inclusive Benefit-cost Analysis in Policing

These second-order costs accrue both directly to those ultimately arrested, tried, and convicted of a crime e. We provide two arguments for why arrest, incarceration, and second-order costs should be included in any BCA of policing. First, an analysis can be conducted from the point of view of at least three entities: This perspective incorporates all costs of policing and provides the most complete picture of the consequences produced.

The problem with such an approach, however, is that it ignores the very real tangible and intangible costs of policing, especially to the minority population that is most impacted by its negative consequences. Not surprisingly, this group is often the most politically weak in a community, and has little opportunity to offset the inequities in discussions about policing Harmon, Incorporation of the arrest, incarceration, and collateral costs of a police practice, therefore, will provide a voice to those who have been excluded from decisions surrounding policing programs.

To begin the discussion on whether the arrest, incarceration, and other potential social costs should be included in a BCA on policing, we must first decide the point of view from which the BCA is being conducted. We argue that use of the perspective of the police department or local government is not a sufficient perspective for a BCA in policing. Instead, a BCA of policing should include all members of a society.

In many circumstances, it makes sense to conduct a BCA restricting society to all members of a neighborhood, city, town, state, or country. As agents of the state, police departments and governments have no intrinsic perspective. These objectives are imposed on the department and government because members of society incur substantial costs from crime and because society values prosecution for violating its laws, and wants to deter future crimes Posner, ; Alschuler, Thus, the institutions only pursue such goals because society as a whole places great weight on them.

Conducting a BCA of policing from the perspective of all members of society, on the other hand, provides a more complete and objective picture of the full range of consequences of such a program, and allows society to make the most informed estimation of whether the police practice improves social welfare. Removing a loving father from a family, for example, potentially eliminates a major source of stability and income, which may have long-term ramifications for his partner and children.

Closing the Gap: The Need for Inclusive Benefit-cost Analysis in Policing

There is evidence of intergenerational punishment costs. Andersen and Wildeman document the rise in foster care rates directly caused by parental incarceration, controlling for factors such as family finances or divorce. There is also a substantial literature discussing the criminogenic nature of incarceration; that is, that the act of incarcerating itself causes an individual to commit more future crimes.

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