Concept Mapping: Learning How to Make Them, Use Them, and Teach Them to Others

Teaching and Learning with Concept Maps

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Students were able to use branching to show more complex associations. After fleshing out their cognitive maps, students identified where their attitudes, beliefs, and information came from family, media, teachers, peers, political party, etc. Students found it valuable to explore their own thinking in this way. They also found that they were able to detect assumptions in their thinking, see that many of their views were essentially reproductions of what they heard from other sources, see that their views were not systematically or rationally obtained, as well as assess the influence of various socialization forces on their thinking.

Since students might not know how to create a concept map, it is beneficial to model the process in class.

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Once students understand the process, you can use concept maps in the following ways:. The following list contains specific functions that can be performed by using concept maps. Click on each link to see examples source: Once you have decided the type of mental function you want students to perform and the type of visualization that will help, there are several tool options.

Students can use Microsoft Word to create their organizer by inserting shapes, smart art, and charts into a Word document. There are also many good Web tools that have been developed and most are free. To use them, all you need is access to a browser. Here are three popular ones:. Novak ad Alberto J. Skip to main content. Concept Mapping Concept mapping is a great way to build upon previous knowledge by connecting new information back to it. Once students understand the process, you can use concept maps in the following ways: Use as an in-class pre-assessment. Prior to discussing a topic, ask students to create a concept map.

Then, as you discuss the information, they can add to or modify their map to reflect their understanding about the topic. Do as a small group activity. Give your students a problem, case study, or question about a key concept. Divide them into small groups of students. Have each group create a concept map as they analyze and synthesize previously learned information into this new scenario. Have the groups present their conclusions. Do as a whole class activity. In fact, the research basis for support of widely recommended inquiry learning is largely absent Mayer, ; Kirschner et al.

The Rote-Meaningful learning continuum is not the same as the Reception-Discovery instructional continuum. One of the powerful uses of concept maps is not only as a learning tool but also as an evaluation tool, thus encouraging students to use meaningful-mode learning patterns Mintzes et al. Concept maps are also effective in identifying both valid and invalid ideas held by students, and this will be discussed further in another section. Figure 4 illustrates the memory systems of the human mind, and interactions with inputs from our affective and psychomotor inputs.

The limiting feature here is that working memory can process only a relatively small number of psychological units five to nine at any one moment Miller, For example, if a person is presented with a list of letters or numbers to memorize in a few seconds, most will recall only 5 to 9 of these. However, if the letters can be grouped to form a know word, or word-like unit, or the numbers can be related to a phone number or something known, then 10 or more letters or numbers can be recalled. In a related test, if we give learners familiar but unrelated words to memorize in a few seconds, most will recall only words.

If the words are unfamiliar, such as technical terms introduced for the first time, the learner may do well to recall correctly two or three of these. It should be noted that retention of information learned by rote still takes place in long term memory, as does information learned meaningfully; the difference is that in rote learning, there is little or no integration of new knowledge with existing knowledge resulting in two negative consequences.

First knowledge learned by rote tends to be quickly forgotten, unless much rehearsed. Second, the knowledge structure or cognitive structure of the learner is not enhanced or modified to clear up faulty ideas. Therefore, to structure large bodies of knowledge requires an orderly sequence of iterations between working memory and long-term memory as new knowledge is being received and processed Anderson, We believe one of the reasons concept mapping is so powerful for the facilitation of meaningful learning is that it serves as a kind of template or scaffold to help to organize knowledge and to structure it, even though the structure must be built up piece by piece with small units of interacting concept and propositional frameworks.

There is still relatively little known about memory processes and how knowledge finally gets incorporated into our brain, but it seems evident from diverse sources of research that our brain works to organize knowledge in hierarchical frameworks and that learning approaches that facilitate this process significantly enhance the learning capability of all learners Bransford et al.

Obviously, our brains store more than concepts and propositions. While the latter are the principal elements that make up our knowledge structures and form our cognitive structure in the brain, we pause briefly to discuss other forms of learning. Iconic learning involves the storage of images of scenes we encounter, people we meet, photos, and a host of other images. These are also referred to as iconic memories Sperling, ; While the alphanumeric images Sperling used in his studies were quickly forgotten, other kinds of images are retained much longer.

Our brains have a remarkable capacity for acquiring and retaining visual images of people or photos. For example, in one study Shepard, presented pictures of common scenes to subjects, and later asked which of two similar pictures shown was one of the seen earlier? This and many other studies have shown that humans have a remarkable ability to recall images, although they soon forget many of the details in the images.

Considering how often we look at pennies, it is interesting that the subjects asked to draw a penny in a study by Nickerson and Adams omitted more than half of the features or located them in the wrong place. We believe that integrating various kind of images into a conceptual framework using concept mapping software like CmapTools described below could enhance iconic memory, and we hope research on this will be done. The learning and recall of sounds is also referred to as archic memory.

Consider the musician who can play hundreds of songs without reading any music. Again we are dealing with memories that are not coded as concepts or propositions.

Studies by Penfield and Perot , among others, indicate that regions of our brain that are activated when we hear sounds are the same regions that are active when we recall sounds. While we can locate regions of the brain that are active in learning or recall of information using positron emission tomography PET scans, the specific mechanisms by which neurons store this information is not known. A full discussion of memory mechanisms is beyond the scope of this document. He has proposed a Theory of Multiple Intelligences. His work has received much attention in education and has served to draw attention to the broad range of differences in human abilities for various kinds of learning and performance.

It is good that schools are recognizing that there are important human capabilities other than the recall of specific cognitive information so often the only form of learning represented in multiple-choice tests used commonly in schools and corporations. One reason we encourage the integration of the broad range of activities represented in our New Model for Education is to provide opportunities for these other abilities to be represented and expressed. Nevertheless, we seen the organizing opportunities afforded by associating the various activities with an explicit knowledge structure as very beneficial.

Time will tell if future research studies will support this claim. While it is true that some students have difficulty building concept maps and using these, at least early in their experience, this appears to result primarily from years of rote-mode learning practice in school settings rather than as a result of brain structure differences per se.

It is not easy to help students in the former condition move to patterns of learning of the latter type. While concept maps can help, students also need to be taught something about brain mechanisms and knowledge organization, and this instruction should accompany the use of concept maps. The information in the above paragraphs should become part on the instructional program for skillful use of concept maps. The information provided in this document could be part of this instruction.

Other ideas for improving instruction to achieve understanding of the subject is available elsewhere Mintzes et al. To illustrate how difficult it can be for individuals to modify their ideas, especially if they learn primarily by rote, we cite the example of interviews done by the Private Universe Project PUP at Harvard University Schneps, The PUP interviewers found that 21 of the 23 interviewed could not explain why we have seasons, a topic that is taught repeatedly in school.

Included in this group was a graduate who had recently taken a course in the Physics of Planetary Motion, who also believed erroneously that seasons were caused by the earth moving closer to the sun in summer and further away in the winter. In fact, the earth is slightly closer to the sun when it is winter in Massachusetts, rather than in summer. The primary reason we have seasons in latitudes away from the equator is due to the tilt of the earth on its axis toward the sun in summer resulting in longer days and more direct radiation, thus greater heating.

In winter, the axis of the earth points away from the sun, thus resulting in shorter days and less intense radiation. What is interfering with these 21 Harvard people is confusion with the common experience that when we are closer to a fire or lamp, the heat is more intense than when we are further away. Thus, these people have failed to recognize that this same phenomenon is not operating to give seasons on Earth.

They are transferring knowledge from one context to another, but incorrectly. The only solution to the problem of overcoming misconceptions is to help learners learn meaningfully, and using concept maps can be very helpful. For more information on misconceptions in science and mathematics see Novak , and: One representation of the knowledge structure required required for understanding why we have seasons. As indicated earlier, we defined concept as a perceived regularity or pattern in events or objects, or records of events or objects, designated by label.

It is coming to be generally recognized now that the meaningful learning processes described above are the same processes used by scientists and mathematicians, or experts in any discipline, to construct new knowledge. In fact, Novak has argued that new knowledge creation is nothing more than a relatively high level of meaningful learning accomplished by individuals who have a well organized knowledge structure in the particular area of knowledge, and also a strong emotional commitment to persist in finding new meanings Novak, , , Epistemology is that branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of knowledge and new knowledge creation.

There is an important relationship between the psychology of learning, as we understand it today, and the growing consensus among philosophers and epistemologists that new knowledge creation is a constructive process involving both our knowledge and our emotions or the drive to create new meanings and new ways to represent these meanings. Learners struggling to create good concept maps are themselves engaged in a creative process, and this can be challenging, especially to learners who have spent most of their life learning by rote.

Rote learning contributes very little at best to our knowledge structures, and therefore cannot underlie creative thinking or novel problem solving. As defined above, concepts and propositions are the building blocks for knowledge in any domain. We can use the analogy that concepts are like the atoms of matter and propositions are like the molecules of matter. There are only around different kinds of atoms, and these make up an infinite number of different kinds of molecules.

There are now about , words in the English language most of which are concept labels , and these can be combined to form an infinite number of propositions. Although most combinations of words might be nonsense, there is still the possibility of creating an infinite number of valid and meaningful propositions.

Poets and novelists will never run out of new ideas to express in new ways. We shall never run out of opportunities to create new knowledge! As people create and observe new or existing objects or events, the creative people will continue to create new concents and new knowledge. Creating new methods of observing or recording events usually opens up new opportunities for new knowledge creation. While there is value in studying more extensively the process of human learning and human knowledge creation, this is beyond the scope of this document. The reader is invited to peruse some of the references cited.

Some important considerations for construction of better concept maps and facilitation of learning will be discussed further below. In learning to construct a concept map, it is important to begin with a domain of knowledge that is very familiar to the person constructing the map. Since concept map structures are dependent on the context in which they will be used, it is best to identify a segment of a text, a laboratory or field activity, or a particular problem or question that one is trying to understand.

This creates a context that will help to determine the hierarchical structure of the concept map. It is also helpful to select a limited domain of knowledge for the first concept maps. A good way to define the context for a concept map is to construct a Focus Question , that is, a question that clearly specifies the problem or issue the concept map should help to resolve.

Every concept map responds to a focus question, and a good focus question can lead to a much richer concept map. When learning to construct concept maps, learners tend to deviate from the focus question and build a concept map that may be related to the domain, but which does not answer the question. It is often stated that the first step to learning about something is to ask the right questions. Given a selected domain and a defined question or problem in this domain, the next step is to identify the key concepts that apply to this domain.

Usually 15 to 25 concepts will suffice. These concepts could be listed, and then from this list a rank ordered list should be established from the most general, most inclusive concept, for this particular problem or situation at the top of the list, to the most specific, least general concept at the bottom of the list. Although this rank order may be only approximate, it helps to begin the process of map construction. We refer to the list of concepts as a parking lot , since we will move these concepts into the concept map as we determine where they fit in.

Some concepts may remain in the parking lot as the map is completed if the mapmaker sees no good connection for these with other concepts in the map.

The next step is to construct a preliminary concept map. Post-its allow a group to work on a whiteboard or butcher paper and to move concepts around easily. This is necessary as one begins to struggle with the process of building a good hierarchical organization. Computer software programs are even better in that they allow moving of concepts together with linking statements and the moving of groups of concepts and links to restructure the map.

When CmapTools is used in conjunction with a computer projector, two or more individuals can easily collaborate in building a concept map and see changes as they progress in their work. It is important to recognize that a concept map is never finished. After a preliminary map is constructed, it is always necessary to revise this map. Other concepts can be added. Good maps usually result from three to many revisions. This is one reason why using computer software is helpful.

Once the preliminary map is built , cross-links should be sought. These are links between concepts in different segments or domains of knowledge on the map that help to illustrate how these domains are related to one another. Cross-links are important in order to show that the learner understands the relationships between the sub-domains in the map.

The class identified concepts in the parking lot on the left, but this student was not successful in using many of these and her map makes little sense. After a preliminary map is constructed, cross-links should be sought. Cross-links are key to show that the learner understands the relationships between the sub-domains in the map.

It is important to help students recognize that all concepts are in some way related to one another. Therefore, it is necessary to be selective in identifying cross-links, and to be as precise as possible in identifying linking words that connect concepts. Figure 6 shows an example of a string map. This is because they poorly understand the relationship between the concepts, or the meanings of the concepts, and it is the linking words that specify this relationship. Once students begin to focus-in on good linking words, and on the identification of good cross-links, they can see that every concept could be related to every other concept.

This also produces some frustration, and they must choose to identify the most prominent and most useful cross-links. This process involves what Bloom identified as high levels of cognitive performance, namely evaluation and synthesis of knowledge. Concept mapping is an easy way to encourage very high levels of cognitive performance, when the process is done well.

This is one reason concept mapping can also be a very powerful evaluation tool Edmondson, Thus, we see that concept maps are not only a powerful tool for capturing, representing, and archiving knowledge of individuals, but also a powerful tool to create new knowledge. The software not only makes it easy for users of all ages to construct and modify concept maps in a similar way that a word processor makes it easy to write text, it allows users to collaborate at a distance in the construction in their maps, publish their concept maps so anybody on the Internet can access them, link resources to their maps to further explain their contents, and search the WWW for information related to the map.

The software allows the user to link resources photos, images, graphs, videos, charts, tables, texts, WWW pages or other concept maps located anywhere on the Internet or in personal files to concepts or linking words in a concept map through a simple drag-and-drop operation. Links to these resources are displayed as icons underneath the concepts, as shown in Figure 7. Clicking on one of these icons will display a list of links from which the user can select to open the linked resource. Using CmapTools, it is possible to use concept maps to access any material that can be presented digitally, including materials prepared by the mapmaker.

Concept Mapping

In this way, concept maps can serve as the indexing and navigational tools for complex domains of knowledge, as will be illustrated later with NASA materials on Mars Briggs et al. A concept map about birds constructed by a high-school student. Icons under the concepts provide links to resources e.

There is a growing body of research that shows that when students work in small groups and cooperate in striving to learn subject matter, positive cognitive and affective outcomes result Johnson et al. Vygotsky introduced the idea that language and social dialogue can support learning, especially when members of the social group are at about the same Zone of Proximal Development ZPD. When students work cooperatively in groups and use concept maps to guide their learning, significantly greater learning occurs Preszler, In our work with both teachers and students, small groups working cooperatively to construct concept maps have proven to be useful in many contexts.

In our own classes and workshops, and in classes taught by our students and colleagues, small groups of students working collectively to construct concept maps can produce some remarkably good maps. CmapTools provides extensive support for collaborative work during concept map construction. The concept maps built using CmapTools can be stored on servers CmapServers, see: Through CmapServers, users of all ages and working in many disciplines have published thousands of maps on all topics and domains.

While concept maps on these public servers are only a sample of concept maps submitted by persons using CmapTools, and some do not meet our criteria of good concept maps, they nevertheless serve to illustrate diverse applications. Through the storing of concept maps in CmapServers, CmapTools encourages collaboration among users constructing the maps.

The high degree of explicitness of concept maps makes them an ideal vehicle for exchange of ideas or for the collaborative construction of new knowledge. We have also found that the obstacles deriving from personal insecurities and fear of embarrassment are largely circumvented, since critical comments are directed at the concept map, not at the person s building the map. The extensive support that CmapTools provides for the collaborative construction of concept maps by groups, whether they are at the same location or in distant locations, has encouraged the increasing use of collaboration during map building.

In a variety of educational settings, concept mapping in small groups has served us well in tasks as diverse as understanding ideas in assimilation learning theory to clarifying job conflicts for conflict resolution in profit and non-profit corporations e. Concept maps are now beginning to be used in corporations to help teams clarify and articulate the knowledge needed to solve problems ranging from the design of new products to marketing to administrative problem resolution.

In addition to a network environment that fosters collaboration and the possibility of constructing knowledge models, the software allows users, among other features, to a search for information based on a concept map Carvalho et al. The concept map can thus become an artifact around which the various activities of the learning process can be centered, as shown in Figure 8. A concept map-centered learning environment implies that concept maps are used throughout the development of a learning unit or module.

Concept Mapping Tools

Concept maps within this environment are likely to be used as the mechanism to determine the level of understanding students have about the topic being studied before the topic is introduced. The maps are then developed, extended and refined as the students develop other activities on the topic and increase their understanding, possibly concluding with complex knowledge models that link resources, results, experiments, etc.

The whole spectrum of learning activities can be integrated using CmapTools, incorporating various learning activities recorded via the software creating a digital portfolio as a product of the learning. Each student can construct the initial concept map individually, giving the teacher feedback on the level of understanding of every student. The concept map can be constructed by students working in couples or small groups, where the teacher must pay attention to the level of participation of every student.

CmapTools has a recorder feature tht allows recording and playback of steps in map construction, including identification of each contributor. The concept map can also be a class effort, using a projector, where all students give their opinion and participate in the construction of the map. Teachers must be alert to evaluate the individual participation of every student. Concept map that is part of a collaborative Knowledge Soup. The lower right window shows propositions from other participants in Soup, some of which have discussion threads attached questioning or commenting on the proposition.

The starting point for constructing a concept map can consist of only the focus question. The type of focus question makes a difference in the type of concept maps that the student builds. It is important that a question be given and not just a topic e. Whenever a concept map is made with CmapTools and then saved, the maker is asked to provide a focus question, as well as key concepts for this concept map.

We refer to a list of concepts waiting to be added to a concept map as the parking lot of concepts. The staring point for the construction of the concept map can be a list of concepts that the teacher wants to make sure all students include in their map. An example of this was given in Figure 6 above.

Experienced concept mappers agree with researchers that the most challenging and difficult aspect of constructing a concept map is constructing the propositions; that is, determining what linking phrases will clearly depict the relationship between concepts. So giving the student some of the concepts does not take away from the difficulty in the map construction, although it may somewhat limit the creativity of the student in selecting the concepts to include.

It does provide the teacher with insight into which concepts the student s had trouble integrating into the concept map, indicating little or no understanding of these concepts. The beginning of a concept map with a focus question and a parking lot with concepts to be included in the map. An expert skeleton concept map dealing with a key concept that needs to be understood as a foundation for learning science, b click on the image to display a larger image.

The intention is that the expert will be better at selecting the small number of concepts that are key to understanding the topic, and express accurately the relationships between these concepts. In general, it is much more difficult to build a good, accurate concept map about a topic with a small number of concepts e. In this case, we are probably referring to using a relatively complete not skeleton map as a scaffold, expecting students to go deeper into the topic by creating several submaps that are linked to the starting point map.

Learners can begin with such a map, add concepts from the parking lot, link digital resources and also construct more specific submaps. More specific expert concept maps can also be provided, such as that shown in Figure Here we also see a submap that might be created by a group of learners, and a sample of two resources that could be accessed via icons on the submap.

One of the advantages in using CmapTools for scaffolding learning is the search function mentioned above, which permits access to WWW resources that are screened to fit the context of meanings defined by the concept map Carvalho et al. The program tries to figure out what the Cmap is about and prepare a query for Web search engines that will generate results that are relevant to the ideas being developed in the concept map.

Of course, the learner still needs to select new concepts from the material and construct new propositions on the concept map that add meanings and clarity to the map. Thus, the learner or team of learners is very actively engaged in the meaning building process, an essential requirement for meaningful learning to occur. Learners can also engage in laboratory or field studies that will add important concrete experiences needed for developing fuller meanings to concepts, and sometimes the excitement that comes with discovering new ideas or relationships.

In fact, teachers supervising this kind of study are likely to learn as many new things as their students. The science books provide relevant readings and suggested activities. It would be important for the teacher to help students perform these activities, and similar related activities, some of which might by suggested in WWW resources. Figure 14 illustrates a stage in this process [3].

Students need concrete, hands on experiences with real things and to observe real phenomena to put meaning into the concept labels provided in the concept maps and other resources. A pilot program effort is already in progress in Italy, where Giuseppe Valittuti and his colleagues are now working to translate The World of Science books into Italian. Valittuti and his colleagues have obtained funding from the Italian Ministry of Education for teacher training and a number of elementary school teams began working with the World of Science concept maps and other resources during the year.

The plan is to have four sets of schools focus on different aspects of The World of Science series and produce photos and videos of students doing projects that illustrate and utilize the various science concepts. This feedback should help us to rapidly refine concept maps, techniques and approaches for improving practice of the New Model for Education. The CmapTools Network may serve as a clearinghouse for some of these efforts through its Public servers in Italy and other countries.

We anticipate that an abundance of both anecdotal and empirical data will flow from these efforts in a few years. Based on the solid theoretical and related research findings now available, there is every reason to be optimistic that these innovative efforts will be successful. Progress of this project can be followed at: The greatest challenge we may expect is to change the school situational factors in the direction of teacher as coach and learner from the prevailing model of teachers as disseminator of information.

We know that we need to engage teachers and administrators in training programs that can model the new educational approaches, and we need to seek their counsel on ways to improve on the New Model for Education. There is also the challenge of changing assessment practices that now rely primarily on multiple-choice tests that measure mainly rote recall of information, to performance-based tests that require students to demonstrate that they understand basic concepts and can use these concepts in novel problems solving, and that they can use Internet resources to grow and modify their concepts and learn new concepts.

There remains in the New Model plenty of room for acquisition of specific facts and procedures, but now these should be learned within the context of powerful conceptual frameworks. Research Bransford et al. We might expect some oppositioin to implementation of the New Model of Education from individuals who believe that "inquiry" learningis the only way to improve education. In fact, research overwhelmingly supports the value of "guided learning", such as that involved in A New Model of Education Mayer, ; Kirschner et al. There is an enormous job of teacher education that needs to be done before the New Model can be implemented in schools.

Teachers need to become familiar with the use of CmapTools software and the various tools it contains. They also need to learn about the theory underlying concept mapping, including the ideas in this paper. Teachers should work collaboratively to build on some of the simpler concept maps dealing with education ideas and perhaps add resources to some of the more complex concept maps. Even with the current state of technology and pedagogical understandings, it is possible for schools, states or countries to mount a New Model for Education.

We are now beginning to see in many science textbooks the inclusion of concept mapping as one way to summarize understandings acquired by students after they study a unit or chapter. Change in school practices is always slow, but it is likely that the use of concept maps in school instruction will increase substantially in the next decade or two. Other innovative practices for assessing student understanding of subject matter are also available Mintzes et al.

When concept maps are used in instruction, they can also be used for evaluation. There is nothing written in stone that says multiple choice tests must be used from grade school through university, and perhaps in time even national achievement exams will utilize concept mapping as a powerful evaluation tool. This is a chicken-and-egg problem because concept maps cannot be required on national achievement tests if most students have not been given opportunities to learn to use this knowledge representation tool.

On the other hand, if state, regional, and national exams would begin to include concept maps as a segment of the exam, there would be a great incentive for teachers to teach students how to use this tool.

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